Author Description

Coastal fortifications in the United States developed from the colonial practice of building temporary structures to a system designed to be permanent and enduring. Coastal fortifications became a focus of national military policy after the War of 1812. The First and Second Systems were evolutionary steps in fortification construction, but a lack of a national military policy providing guidance resulted in an incoherent system. The Board Report of 1821, based on policy guidance from presidents James Madison and James Monroe, provided a roadmap for the establishment of the Third System and coastal fortifications based on coherent policy. This monograph analyzes the history of American coastal fortifications from the colonial period to the Third System. From this perspective, it will show the evolution of coastal fortifications in relation to national military policy. The early period of the United States saw the development of a coherent system of fortifications that lasted into the 20th century. Coastal fortifications were a critical piece of an integrated system of defense. The establishment of fortifications did not happen through a single act of Congress or by the introduction of a coherent strategy that brought together the various elements of an integrated defense all at once. Early fortification development was the result of a particular crisis. However, the years spanning 1815-1835 were unique and allowed for fortification development in the absence of crisis. From 1793 through 1815, the United States went through two distinct stages of coastal fortification planning and construction. Both of these stages, the First and Second Systems, occurred during periods of national emergency. Before the American Revolution, the then-British colonies had constructed but a few permanent fortifications. The threat of invasion was relatively small. The lack of a direct threat was largely the result of two major factors. First was the natural composition of the borders, whic